
By Habib-Al Badawi
Introduction: A New Chapter in Latin American Resistance
In the annals of Latin American history, few moments have captured the essence of regional resistance quite like Colombia’s defiance of American hegemony during Donald Trump’s second administration. This pivotal period marks not merely a diplomatic dispute between nations but rather represents a fundamental shift in the geopolitical landscape of the Western Hemisphere.
As Trump’s administration, spearheaded by Secretary of State Marco Rubio, attempted to reassert U.S. dominance through a revival of the Monroe Doctrine, they encountered an unexpected source of resistance: Colombia, once Washington’s most steadfast regional ally, now transformed under the progressive leadership of Gustavo Petro.
Theoretical Framework: Resistance and Sovereignty in Latin American International Relations
Core Theoretical Foundations
This study’s analysis of Colombia’s resistance to U.S. hegemony can be understood through three interconnected theoretical lenses:
- Critical Geopolitics: Building on Ó Tuathail’s (1996) work in critical geopolitics, this study examines how geopolitical power is exercised through both material and discursive practices. This theoretical approach helps understand how Colombia’s resistance operates on multiple levels—diplomatic, economic, and cultural. The framework incorporates Agnew’s (2003) critique of the “territorial trap” in international relations, particularly relevant when analyzing changing patterns of regional alignment.
- Post-Colonial Theory and Decolonial Thought: The primary theoretical foundation draws from post-colonial theory, particularly incorporating Latin American decolonial thought as articulated by Walter Mignolo (2011) and Aníbal Quijano (2000). Their concept of “coloniality of power” helps explain how historical patterns of colonial domination persist in modern international relations. This framework is particularly relevant in analyzing Colombia’s resistance to what the study terms the “neo-Monroe Doctrine.”
- World Systems Theory and Global Power Transitions: Drawing from Wallerstein’s (2004) world-systems theory and more recent work on power transition theory by Kugler and Lemke (2011), the framework examines how middle-power nations navigate periods of global power transition. This theoretical lens is particularly useful in analyzing Colombia’s positioning between U.S. hegemony and China’s rising influence.
- Subsidiary Theoretical Components
- Cultural Resistance and Symbolic Power: The framework incorporates Bourdieu’s (1989) concept of symbolic power and Scott’s (1990) theories of resistance, particularly relevant in analyzing the cultural dimensions of Colombia’s defiance. This helps explain how literary and cultural references serve as tools of resistance.
- Economic Sovereignty and Development Theory: Building on the work of Prebisch (1950) and contemporary dependency theorists, the framework examines how economic sovereignty interfaces with political independence in the Global South context.
The Historical Context: From Compliance to Confrontation

Colombia’s transformation from what Hugo Chávez once dubbed “the Israel of Latin America” (Carlson, 2008) to a beacon of regional independence represents a seismic shift in hemispheric politics. For decades, Colombia served as Washington’s reliable partner in South America, functioning as what Chávez accurately described as an “unsinkable aircraft carrier” for U.S. interests in the region. This role, embraced by previous administrations such as that of Juan Manuel Santos, who wore the “Israel of Latin America” label as a badge of honor, began to unravel with the historic election of Gustavo Petro in 2022.
Petro’s presidency marked the first time in Colombia’s history that a leftist leader assumed the nation’s highest office, signaling a profound break with the country’s traditionally conservative political establishment. This electoral victory represented more than a mere changing of the guard; it heralded a fundamental reassessment of Colombia’s relationship with the United States and its role in the broader international community.
The Trump-Rubio Doctrine: Reviving Colonial Ambitions
Donald Trump’s second administration brought with it a renewed emphasis on asserting U.S. dominance in what Washington has long considered its “backyard.” The appointment of Marco Rubio as Secretary of State signaled a particular focus on Latin America (Janoski, 2025), with policies aimed at curtailing the region’s growing relationships with China and punishing governments that dared to chart an independent course. This neo-Monroe Doctrine, as it came to be known, represented a stark return to the colonialist mindset that had characterized U.S.-Latin American relations throughout much of the 19th and 20th centuries.
The administration’s approach manifested in several aggressive policies:
- The imposition of punitive tariffs targeting BRICS nations, which now encompass 55% of the world’s population.
- Threats to seize control of the Panama Canal, invoking echoes of Theodore Roosevelt’s gunboat diplomacy.
- Economic warfare against nations seeking closer ties with China.
- A renewed push for regime change in Venezuela, Cuba, and Nicaragua.
Petro’s Colombia: Charting an Independent Course
Under Petro’s leadership, Colombia began pursuing policies that directly challenged U.S. hegemony in the region. The elevation of Colombia-China relations to a “strategic partnership” in 2023 represented a direct challenge to Washington’s attempt to isolate Beijing from Latin America (Myers, 2023). Similarly, Colombia’s decision to sever diplomatic relations with Israel, accompanied by Petro’s strong condemnation of Israeli actions in Gaza, demonstrated a willingness to break with U.S. foreign policy priorities in favor of principled positions on international issues (Bouchard, 2024).
These actions provoked fierce retaliation from the Trump administration, including:
- The imposition of escalating tariffs on Colombian goods.
- Visa sanctions target government officials and their families.
- Attempts to destabilize Petro’s government through support for opposition figures.
- A coordinated media campaign aimed at delegitimizing Petro’s leadership.
The Battle for Dignity: Beyond Economic Warfare
Perhaps the most compelling aspect of Colombia’s resistance lies in Petro’s articulation of a broader vision for Latin American independence (People’s Dispatch, 2025). His response to Trump’s threats, particularly his open letter, transcends mere political rhetoric to touch upon deeper themes of historical memory, cultural identity, and human dignity. By invoking figures like Simón Bolívar, Salvador Allende, and the fictional Colonel Aureliano Buendía from Gabriel García Márquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude,” Petro places Colombia’s current struggle within a longer historical narrative of resistance to imperialism.
The Regional Context: A Shifting Balance of Power
Colombia’s defiance occurs against the backdrop of broader changes in the regional and global order. China’s emergence as South America’s largest trading partner represents a fundamental challenge to U.S. economic dominance in the hemisphere. This shift has provided countries like Colombia with alternatives to traditional dependence on the United States, enabling a more assertive foreign policy stance.
The response to Trump’s threats from other regional actors has been telling. While some right-wing politicians, like Colombian presidential candidate Fico Gutiérrez, rushed to align themselves with Washington, others saw in Colombia’s resistance a model for their own aspirations toward greater independence. China’s swift diplomatic support, expressed through Ambassador Zhu Jingyang’s statements, highlighted the growing multipolarity of international relations in Latin America.
Dimensions of Resistance in Contemporary Colombian Politics
1. Cultural Foundations of Political Resistance
1.1. Literary and Historical Symbolism: The cultural dimension of Colombia’s resistance manifests through a sophisticated integration of literary and historical symbolism, where the yellow butterflies of Macondo transcend their fictional origins to become powerful symbols of national resilience. This masterful deployment of cultural imagery demonstrates how literary heritage can be transformed into political capital. The revolutionary spirit of Bolívar, skillfully woven into contemporary political discourse, creates a seamless narrative connecting historical liberation struggles with present-day assertions of sovereignty. This symbolic continuity serves to legitimize current resistance while grounding it in the region’s rich tradition of anti-imperial struggle.
1.2. Identity and Cultural Autonomy: Colombia’s self-proclamation as “the heart of the world” represents more than geographical centrality; it embodies a profound reimagining of national identity. This reimagining synthesizes Indigenous, African, and Mediterranean heritage into a coherent narrative of cultural autonomy. The resulting identity construct serves as a bulwark against cultural homogenization, presenting a sophisticated counter-narrative to neo-colonial influences. This multifaceted cultural identity becomes both shield and sword in the struggle for national sovereignty, demonstrating how cultural self-definition can become a powerful tool of political resistance.
2. Economic Dimensions
2.1. Practical Sovereignty Measures: The economic manifestation of Colombia’s resistance reveals a nuanced understanding of contemporary global power dynamics. The implementation of reciprocal tariffs demonstrates not merely reactive policy-making but a sophisticated approach to economic sovereignty. By reviving and modernizing import substitution strategies, Colombia has crafted an economic response that transcends simple protectionism, instead fostering domestic industrial capacity while maintaining strategic international engagement. This approach represents a refined understanding of how economic sovereignty can be exercised in an interconnected global economy.
2.2. International Economic Realignment: Colombia’s cultivation of a strategic partnership with China exemplifies a sophisticated approach to international economic relations. This partnership transcends simple trade agreements, representing instead a comprehensive realignment of economic relationships that enhances Colombia’s global positioning. The diversification of economic partnerships creates multiple centers of gravity in Colombia’s international relations, generating leverage that extends beyond mere economic considerations into the realm of geopolitical influence. This multi-dimensional approach to economic relationships demonstrates a nuanced understanding of how economic sovereignty can be exercised in contemporary global order.
3. Social Impact and Human Considerations
3.1. Domestic Challenges: The social implications of Colombia’s resistance strategy reveal the complex interplay between national sovereignty and domestic welfare. The impact of international sanctions on vulnerable populations presents a crucial challenge to policy makers, requiring careful calibration of resistance measures against social protection imperatives. This delicate balance demonstrates the sophisticated understanding that effective resistance must be sustainable at the social level, integrating economic measures with robust social protection mechanisms.
3.2. Humanitarian Principles: Colombia’s stance on immigration and deportation policies reflects a profound commitment to human dignity that transcends conventional policy considerations. This humanitarian approach demonstrates how principles of human dignity can be integrated into broader resistance strategies without compromising their effectiveness. The relationship between economic policies and social welfare reveals a sophisticated understanding of how resistance can be structured to protect vulnerable populations while maintaining its political efficacy.
4. Leadership and Policy Integration
4.1. Strategic Leadership Approach: The leadership dimension of Colombia’s resistance demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of how symbolic and practical measures can be integrated to maximize political effect. The careful balancing of historical narratives with contemporary policy initiatives creates a coherent framework for resistance that resonates both domestically and internationally. This strategic approach to leadership demonstrates how political capital can be generated and deployed in the service of national sovereignty.
4.2. Policy Coordination: The integration of domestic and foreign policy reveals a comprehensive approach to resistance that transcends traditional policy boundaries. Environmental and social justice initiatives are seamlessly woven into the broader fabric of resistance, creating a coherent policy framework that addresses multiple dimensions of national development. This sophisticated approach to policy coordination demonstrates how resistance can be structured to achieve multiple objectives simultaneously.
5. Information and Narrative Control
5.1. Media Warfare Dynamics: The management of international narratives demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of how information warfare shapes contemporary political struggles. Colombia’s response to delegitimization attempts reveals a nuanced approach to narrative control that integrates historical and cultural arguments into a coherent counter-narrative. This sophisticated approach to information management demonstrates how narrative control can be exercised in the service of national sovereignty.
5.2. Alternative Vision Construction: The promotion of a multipolar world order represents a sophisticated understanding of how alternative visions can be constructed and deployed in the service of national sovereignty. The emphasis on dignity and sovereignty in international relations demonstrates a nuanced approach to global politics that transcends simple opposition to hegemony. The development of Global South connections reveals a sophisticated understanding of how international relationships can be restructured to support national sovereignty.
6. Environmental and Sustainable Development
6.1. Environmental Policy as Resistance: Colombia’s environmental policies represent a sophisticated challenge to neoliberal development models, integrating ecological responsibility with economic sovereignty. This approach demonstrates how environmental policy can be deployed as a form of resistance, creating alternative development pathways that challenge conventional models while promoting national interests.
6.2. Comprehensive Transformation: The integration of environmental and social justice initiatives reveals a sophisticated understanding of how comprehensive transformation can be achieved through coordinated policy initiatives. The alignment of domestic and international policies demonstrates how resistance can be structured to promote long-term sustainability while maintaining political effectiveness. This comprehensive approach to transformation reveals a sophisticated understanding of how resistance can be structured to achieve multiple objectives simultaneously.
The Emergence of Multi-Dimensional Resistance in a Multipolar World
The case of Colombia’s resistance to U.S. hegemony during this period represents more than a mere diplomatic confrontation—it embodies a fundamental shift in how middle-power nations can navigate an increasingly multipolar world order. Through the lens of our theoretical framework, several crucial insights emerge that contribute to our understanding of contemporary Global South resistance.
First, Colombia’s experience demonstrates how post-colonial resistance has evolved beyond traditional forms of state-to-state confrontation. By integrating cultural symbolism, economic sovereignty, and diplomatic defiance, Petro’s government has illustrated what we might term “multi-dimensional resistance.” This approach, consistent with Mignolo’s conception of decolonial options, shows how nations can leverage various forms of power—symbolic, economic, and diplomatic—to assert their sovereignty.
The study reveals that effective resistance to hegemonic power in the 21st century requires a sophisticated understanding of what Bourdieu would recognize as different forms of capital. Colombia’s strategic deployment of cultural narratives, from García Márquez’s yellow butterflies to Bolivarian revolutionary rhetoric, demonstrates how symbolic power can be mobilized to strengthen material resistance. This cultural dimension, far from being merely decorative, has proved essential in building domestic and regional support for potentially costly economic and diplomatic measures.
Furthermore, the case study validates Wallerstein’s world-systems theory while simultaneously suggesting its evolution in a multipolar context. Colombia’s ability to leverage China’s rising influence while maintaining its independent stance demonstrates how middle-power nations can exploit the gaps that emerge during periods of global power transition. However, this case also suggests that traditional core-periphery relationships are becoming more fluid and complex than classic world-systems theory might suggest.
Perhaps most significantly, Colombia’s resistance offers a new model for what might be termed “sovereign developmentalism.” Unlike previous waves of Latin American resistance to U.S. hegemony, this innovative approach combines:
- Economic pragmatism that leverages global multipolarity
- Cultural resistance is rooted in national and regional identity.
- Environmental and social justice considerations
- Sophisticated diplomatic maneuvering between global powers
The implications of this study extend beyond Latin America. As the global order continues to evolve toward multipolarity, Colombia’s experience offers valuable lessons for other middle-power nations seeking to assert their sovereignty. The success of its multi-dimensional resistance strategy suggests that effective opposition to hegemonic power requires not just material capabilities but also the ability to mobilize cultural resources and navigate complex global power dynamics. However, several questions remain for future research. The sustainability of such resistance in the face of sustained economic pressure remains uncertain. Furthermore, the long-term implications of leveraging rival great powers’ influence while maintaining genuine independence deserve continued scholarly attention.
What emerges clearly from this analysis is that the traditional tools of hegemonic power—economic sanctions, diplomatic isolation, and media pressure—may be losing their effectiveness in a world where alternative partnerships are increasingly available and where cultural resistance can effectively mobilize popular support. As Ó Tuathail’s critical geopolitics would suggest, the very nature of global power relations is being rewritten through such acts of resistance.
Accordingly, Colombia’s defiance represents not just a challenge to U.S. hegemony but a potential blueprint for sovereign resistance in an increasingly multipolar world. The success or failure of this model will likely influence the calculations of other nations considering similar paths of resistance. What remains clear is that the intersection of cultural resistance, economic sovereignty, and diplomatic defiance has created new possibilities for middle-power nations to assert their independence in the global order.
Looking Forward: Implications for Global Order
As we look to the future, Colombia’s experience suggests that effective resistance to hegemonic power will increasingly require what we might term “strategic multiplexity”—the ability to operate simultaneously across cultural, economic, and diplomatic domains while maintaining coherent national sovereignty. This may well become the model for future expressions of Global South independence in an increasingly complex international order.
Colombia’s resistance to Trump’s neo-Monroe Doctrine carries significant implications for the future of international relations. It suggests the possibility of a new model of South-North relations, one based on mutual respect rather than dominance and submission. The success or failure of Colombia’s stance will likely influence other nations’ calculations about their own relationships with Washington.
Several key questions emerge:
- Can middle-power nations successfully resist pressure from global superpowers while maintaining economic stability?
- How might regional integration efforts evolve in response to renewed U.S. interventionism?
- What role will cultural resistance play in future anti-imperialist movements?
- How will the growing influence of China affect the traditional dynamics of U.S.-Latin American relations?
Conclusion: The Future of Global South Resistance
As Colombia’s story of defiance continues to unfold, it offers valuable lessons for other nations seeking to assert their independence in an increasingly multipolar world. The success of Petro’s resistance strategy—combining economic measures, cultural resistance, and principled diplomatic positions—suggests possible pathways for other nations facing similar pressures.
Yet the challenges remain formidable. The ability of middle-power nations to maintain independence while facing pressure from global superpowers remains uncertain. The outcome of Colombia’s resistance will likely influence the calculations of other nations considering similar paths.
What remains clear is that Colombia’s defiance represents more than just a bilateral dispute with the United States. It embodies a broader struggle for dignity, sovereignty, and self-determination in a world still grappling with the legacy of colonialism and imperialism. As the yellow butterflies of Macondo continue to soar over the land of Bolívar, they carry with them the hopes of nations seeking to chart their own course in an increasingly complex global order.
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